This article contains br> From the History of Economic Theory, Economics and Ethics of Engineering includes two aspects, however, rehabilitation classical dynasties, more and more abandoned by the Western mainstream economics concerns the content of ethics, to restore human nature animal instinct of self-preservation from the biological point of view of human social behavior; result, the economics research makes increasingly narrow, accordingly, economics, research methods are increasingly abstract and mathematical. For this reason, modern mainstream economic theory in its assumptions on the basis of a series: such as profit maximization, perfect information, transitive preference, diminishing returns, rational expectations, a perfectly competitive market, given preferences, the concepts of the parties are non-productive Economists were assumed. In view of mainstream economics, economic theory is abstract and general development of the process, for the vast majority of mainstream economists are abstract methods for such defense. For example, Stigler to emphasize that useful theory, even if it is only used once the core problem is that these assumptions are realistic or non-realism, such as the Meiji that the economics of the most important methodological issues are and will continue to be known as the theory of the future and its assumptions of realism. [② ]
In fact, Rorty has pointed out that the only standard of truth can only be explained to us the sum of consistency, including their presence in the world with our values and consistency of purpose; for example, the reason is that Newtonian physics than Aristotle's physics, not because it more closely with the reality of the consistency between, but because it enables us to better cope with life. [③] Then, the core assumptions of modern mainstream economics Rational economic man mm mm connotation really allows us to economic and non-economic explanation of the phenomenon is inherently the same? this rational behavior and its derivatives will enable us to better cope with life? One obvious fact is that With the study of economics changes and the resulting return to the political economy, the original neo-classical focus on the relationship between persons and things have been less and less naturalistic thinking applied; because it involves human must have a rational relationship between the social, which need to look at the meaning of social rationality. It is not considered a rational change of meaning, the mainstream game theory, new classical economics simply dealing with the relationship between human and object formed blend of instrumental rationality together to explore the interaction between human beings, the results of the Prisoner's Dilemma to draw the balance of the general proposition; accordingly, according to this way of instrumental rationality to the implementation of principal - agent style of governance, to encourage the breeding of the compatible with a large number of phenomena. The problem is, in reality, there's plight than the theory, much less is derived, the basic facts of human social development is the radius of the expanding cooperation; Obviously, this reflects the theory of modern economics and there is a big disconnect between the reality. In fact, the only focus on the personal interests of the instrumental rationality is often considered suitable only in the case of zero-sum game, and once extended to the case of variable-sum game, since people can get more rent a large cooperation, focusing on long-term benefits may be more practical communicative rationality, which involves the coordination behavior between people.
However, despite marked a profound mark on the economic man instrumental rationality that does not meet the reality, shift the economy of modern mainstream economics, but people assume that their own theoretical system as the cornerstone, and that Use mathematical tools to make economics more scientific and accurate. It is based on this doctrine, the vast majority of modern economics, criticism can turn a blind eye and a deaf ear, Lin Jinzhong out the following: 1. mainstream economics can easily the history of economics to resolve the all for its the basis of its theoretical system and the logical starting point, without having to worry about building the theory of the act due to the obvious assumption that a theoretical assumptions of the real issue of whether more can be based on Friedman's [④]
problem is that Friedman's It is by the The relationship between economic phenomenon itself is complex and changeable, so economics is often true and accurate can not have both; then, that the pursuit of modern economics, The scientific study it? Obviously, if we are really explain the theory of social and economic phenomenon as it is science, then, assuming the reality of whether or not the development of economic theory is not important. That being the case, we How to make assumptions and reflect the reality of abstract theory while contributing to the establishment of it? This requires that follows the historical and logical consistency requirements: on the one hand, we can not arbitrarily disregard of the facts to make assumptions, however, interpreted accordingly reasoning to a conclusion; the other hand, we can not accept the naive empiricist view, trying to find a simple theory from the facts. In fact, Whitehead to emphasize that a science of its own assumptions must remain vigilant and critical . On the assumption of modern economics, in recent years has caused a lot of scholars, [⑤] In this paper, based on the literature, and further to the assumptions of modern mainstream economics unreasonable for an analysis, and further explore the construct reasonable assumptions of the way.
Second, mainstream economics assumes no correlation between the reality of
general, abstraction is a basic path of economic research, but also the fundamental characteristics of theoretical research. For example, Des Moines to pointed out that so, the abstract analysis has been advocating a purely economic theory that emphasized academics. For example, Neville. Keynes that not to consider the special economic conditions r sacrifice will be the exact same universality as the cost of attempting to make our back to those actually involved in the complexity of economic life. Suppose r can not be entirely realistic r. l on the wheat market a complete r-l theory of realism, not only the need to include the supply and demand will determine those situations, but also includes a cash or credit instruments trading types; also include each trader's hair and eye color, his character, experience, education and other personal characteristics; wheat soil type, soil physical and chemical properties, in the main weather conditions during the growing ; wheat farmers acute end-use consumers in the personal characteristics of wheat mm and so on, are endless. To achieve such a l r and the real efforts made white elephant, is bound to make the theory useless. [⑧]
path based on abstract analysis, in a series built on the basis of a priori theoretical assumption has become the mainstream of economics: Adam Smith's invisible hand, the Ricardian equivalence in exchange for a price of Russian forest theorem, the cross elasticity of Marshall and the Phillips curve, etc., are true. Moreover, the abstract will definitely lay down some restrictive conditions, which are constructed based on the general theory of abstraction will tend to gradually detached from the concrete reality. For example, Hart pointed out that complex reality of the essential characteristics of the abstract. said: There are five general equilibrium theory assumes that each assumption may have five different reasons does not match reality, but this is to provide one of the most useful economic theory. Furthermore, in the modern mainstream economists, , the effectiveness of the theory explained by its ability to predict the phenomena to determine the authenticity of assumptions without care, even assuming the truth is often unrelated to their prediction. which is the master of Friedman, He stressed that an outstanding, assuming r l it the more divorced from reality. economics gradually lost the rationality assumption of the interest; further in under the control of various immunization strategy, the development of theoretical assumptions or empirical evidence can be perfectly justifiable to evade inspection, the kind of irregular trying to use empirical people to reflect on the phenomenon of mainstream economics is often criticized as the society of people with rich natural disposition of the heterogeneity of the abstract to an average of the atom; and that the individual atoms or a combination of abnormalities: a Superman-like computing preservation instinct of reason and has the motivation of animals. Thus, a fully maximize the benefits of rational advocates of mainstream economics to be the logic of modern objects, economic man will constitute the core assumptions of modern economics. In particular, research in economics has been greatly expanded and more focused on specific human behavior in social relations today, the abstract analysis not only without the slightest pause, but even more courage, abstract thinking in modern economics has become more expansive. For example, Allais pointed out that Occam's razor principle, after the economist Adam Smith is highly simplified by studying the behavior of variables under ideal gradually formed a set of formal, rigorous system of economic theory hh question is not too abstract neo-classical theory. In fact, it rehabilitation to include a higher level of abstraction. , religion, law, at all levels, regardless of whether the test can be experienced. For example, rational choice theory in the legislative act being extended to when Strom wrote that: scientists were asked to predict the fall from the trees where the leaves will fall. According to free-fall theory, the physicists know that the leaf will fall toward the (main trends), and may fall from the trees near place. However, the wind direction and gust strength is uncertain, physicists can not accurately predict the placement of the leaves. Similarly, the space in the legislative decision-making rational actors in the development of theory, the theorists have chosen to ignore the role of gust the theory initially focused on the legislative acts of the main trend, this tendency by legislators and their preferences to maximize their preferences taken the decision error-free strategy. academia, such simple as possible, not only requires fewer restrictions to the extent possible, and can not be demanding restrictions entirely consistent reality. on the methodology of economics is the most classic paper by Friedman's Friedman put forward the famous assumptions not related to r l proposition, the implication is that the role of theory is to explain phenomena and predict phenomena. For the theory of choice to infer whether the theory was consistent, that is, whether the theory can explain and predict phenomenon, based on theoretical assumptions and not based on correct. For example, in the famous theory of international trade factor price convergence theory l r, Thus, the argument that if trade in goods between the two countries is completely free, there is no trade friction and transaction costs through trade in goods, labor and capital between the two countries will be convergence of factor prices. Obviously, there is no complete freedom, there is no friction and transaction costs of trade, but can not be used to negate this theory, whether to accept the theory, based on open trade between the two countries since the gap between wages and interest rates are reduced may be. Theory and maps as a tool to save the information as long as it shows the causal relationship between the main variables to. So, to round off as unimportant conditions, retaining only the most important conditions. Otherwise, the theory did not save the information, will not become a theory. said: general equilibrium theory provides a useful frame of reference, as no mechanical friction state theorems, although no friction assumption is clearly unrealistic; general equilibrium theory in the Arrow - Debreu theorem of property rights theory as the Coase Theorem, corporate finance theory Modigeli Anne - Miller theorems provide a frame of reference, which does not lie in the importance of their own frame of reference whether they accurately describe the reality, because they established a number of so a better understanding of the reality of the scale, thus the analysis by economists as their reference point. [14]
, of course, the reason why the modern mainstream economics tried to assume the defense of non-reality, mainly trying to physics to seek basis for learning. For example, in the ideal gas equation: PV = RT, is full of a variety of unrealistic assumptions: the volume of gas molecules is zero, the interaction between gas molecules is zero, the gas molecules perfectly elastic; Similarly, the law of free fall in the:, there are a series of unrealistic assumptions: zero pressure, objects falling in a vacuum, all other (such as the moon) in zero gravity, all the magnetic force is zero, the radius of the earth is infinite . just to Friedman as the representative of the modern mainstream economists seem more extreme, not only in economics assume this is not the authenticity of the defense, and even the validity of the theory and assumptions of authenticity against each other. Friedman's explanation is: the fact that the evidence will never be able to prove a hypothesis but only whether the license permits it or not, but any one of the hypotheses in the description of their hypotheses must be false, is speculation in the content , the hypothesis has Characteristics of making a false hypothesis of a direct falsification loses its meaning, the validity of the hypotheses the only fair, is it appropriate to test the prediction compared with the evidence; Therefore, l limited evidence to explain the fact that most r, that is, if a hypothesis that is intended to explain the phenomena which conditions a large number of complex, abstract and critical factors in common, and can ensure that these factors reasonable on the basis of speculation, then, this hypothesis is important. Therefore, to become an important hypothesis, it must discard the assumptions described in some aspects of authenticity, it does not take into account and explain the circumstances, it is the largest success is that it can prove that the phenomenon of many other events associated with both major and independent phenomena to be explained. But criticism by many economists, of which there are more well-known Koopmans, Luo Tewei and Samuelson result. For example, Koopmans said: separation. only assume that the logic of the content is important Economic theory emphasizes the certainty of the premise that the correctness of the conclusion can only be built on the premise to prove the authenticity of the basis, and Samuelson will be Friedman's view as (three basic assumptions. In fact, although the theory of any subject does contain non-realistic assumptions, however, this non-realistic assumptions on the requirements of different levels are different, they can not, as Friedman asserts that all is false; and, not accurately predict the effectiveness of a theory the only appropriate means of inspection, if they are the only appropriate means of inspection, it will be impossible to distinguish between true and false relationships. Moreover, although Modern mainstream economics, seeking to imitate the natural science of physics, but their assumptions on the characteristics of different levels but there is a fundamental difference; Although modern mainstream economics of highly abstract mathematics achieved its However, the results presented so far is the science and natural science simply can not compare.
Third, the assumptions of economics and natural science experts in Meiji Economic Methodology
compared to a theoretical assumption was simply divided into two levels: the core assumptions (core assumptions) and external assumptions (peripheral assumptions), and the assumption that these two levels have different requirements: on the one hand, the core assumption is the essence of the phenomenon under study abstract, the theoretical has a key role, which requires that the inherent nature of things as much as possible and reveal the true mechanism; the other hand, the external assumptions, such assumptions can be ignored and the initial steps of assumptions, but can eliminate the interference and confusion to the actual help found that the nature of things, and thus assumed to be relatively peripheral to leave the reality. peripherals not assume that the reason lies in the reality of limited, non-reality of the external assumptions are often secondary causes of the phenomenon of help from the isolated mainly from sub- related factors, isolate the root of the relationship, which can be used to offset the research of the phenomenon is not the key factors are not essential but helps to find the essence of things; the contrary, if all the factors or conditions are required to maintain true, then it can not theorize but only one specific case studies. It is based on two different levels of assumptions, we can guarantee that not only has the abstract theory, but also scientific, to achieve the unity of the abstract and scientific, the on the establishment of a unified theory and the empirical basis of reductionism: on the one hand, while with the unrealistic nature of the external assumptions, but these unrealistic conditions can be controlled by experiments, which can depend on the conditions of the theoretical and abstract assumptions to recover consistent; the other hand, it is assumed by the external conditions of recovery, to be confirmed by experiments to test the theory, thus ensuring the true and scientific. Thus, although theories are often non-realistic, abstract theory is Institute necessary; However, assuming that is not arbitrary, especially the core assumptions need as close as possible the essence of things. Moreover, even assuming the periphery of the other, nor is it free to ignore, but there is a assumption of ignoring Assuming the above two requirements are often met: the core assumptions of physics to the extent possible, reflect the essence of things, such as the law of free fall () in the object is reflected by the Earth's gravitational field to attract the core assumptions, as well as vacuum There is no other attraction to the construction of the external terms of assumptions of the theory is relatively not very important; And, like the air buoyancy and wind speed or wind direction and other interference factors can be controlled through human means, which can be an empirical test of the theory . In a sense, it reflects the gravity hypothesis of the nature of the interaction between object recognition, it is to maintain the natural balance between the basic force of things; that is, natural science emphasized the need to match with the reality of the core Assuming that is the essence of things. In general, understanding of the nature of this reflects the deepening of human intelligence, the natural sciences to explore the laws of nature actually is to reveal the nature of things and the things that effect between the inner mechanism Although this effect under different external conditions, the result may be totally different. For example, understanding of force, merely the next earliest possible force in the macro, then slowly realize that the forces between molecules and the formation of magnetic field; while at the same magnetic field, the air buoyancy or other external things may change between the intensity and direction.
However, modern mainstream economics thinking has been put aside on the nature of inquiry, and the Just as a kind of core assumptions to facilitate the provisions of reasoning can be arbitrary assumptions. For example, in economics, the theory of maximizing behavior, not only as its core assumption of economic man is simply not the reality itself, the self-interest of social behavior can not be accessible natural harmony; and, as the external conditions of complete information assumptions often can not be artificially controlled and therefore economic theory of , the fully rational economic man is the core of this hypothesis, but the content of rational (or rational pursuit of the objects which) had not yet reached a consensus, how can we say that the core assumption is that reality? Of course, modern mainstream economics often based on human instinct and the rational constraints on the pursuit of material interests, but the behavior deviations are considered the result of other constraints, it is obviously not in conformity with the difference between the social reality of the social person. Another , the complete information assumption is to maximize the external behavior, precisely because of incomplete information has led to limited human rationality, and the resulting acts of bias or error; but obviously, impossible to get complete information to will not be able to test this theory on the maximum, when you see the anomaly, we will not be able to judge this is due to incomplete information or errors caused by the normal human behavior irrational.
and natural science is emphasized idealized abstraction, there are two reasons for this: one who causes all the specific objects composed of similar materials and showed very similar characteristics, thus subject to the same specific law; the two, the object of their environment and each other between the role of great stability, which can isolate a particular object as a partial analysis. But clearly, the situation faced by economics is entirely different: a person, each of the specific characteristics of actors there is often a great difference between the behavior characteristics of each person is different; the two, the environment in which each person is always uncertain, and, other contributing factors can not be really excluded. precisely because social phenomena between relations to more complex, not even the existence of a major factor, therefore, economics can not exist as natural science as an ideal experimental conditions will affect the psychological and other factors aside; particular, economics is fundamentally to address specific social problems, and any factors that may lead to a slightly different error practice results, which will lead to over-abstraction of theory and practice of economics, there is a growing disconnect between. For example, Qian Yingyi to recognize the economic human behavior based on assumptions, economists often come unexpectedly but in fact the logical conclusion is reasonable; For this reason, we will hear people exclaim: worse, at first is the study of these purely economic perspective of behavioral economics continue to be extended to political science, sociology, research such as elections, political, family, marriage and other issues, the results obtained in these areas often opposite to our daily experience of human relations and even contrary to the moral point of view. Since these conclusions are surprising, of course, is that people will not portray real life; the contrary, the number of main stems from the physical or logical, and thus inevitably can not explain the real causes of social phenomena.
In particular, the economic logic of the game itself is not but one Zhiyong of science, economics and even transform reality to help explain the purpose; is based on this point, Simon believes that Friedman and Any complete vacuum, but because some of the real world situation and close enough to full vacuum, so that his hypothesis meaningful. as to self-serving as the goal of maximizing the fundamental principle of human choice not correctly formulated problem. precisely because of the blind worship of modern mainstream economics, some of abstract methodology, seeking to build under the unreasonable assumption that the logic of precision, this is actually the fundamental research methodology is not scientific disciplines; this reason, economics predicted theoretically doomed to failure, Kaldor pointed out, theories are abstract, and must be so, because there is no abstract to no analysis of the mm but it is an abstract from mistakes, and thus distorted reflection of the nature of the operation of economic forces and form. Man's correct conclusion, but the false premise two conclusions mm able to get right or wrong conclusions; Clearly, economics is the correct conclusion you want, and therefore must ensure that the assumption is reasonable. For this reason, that Samuelson Friedman and tools the most fundamental error doctrine is not that non-realism is not a theory or hypothesis of the defect, not only that, also see it as a virtue, it is a mistake on a mistake. Similarly, Hausmann also pointed out that Friedman's argument there is a logical error, because the logic of Friedman's premise that guess But clearly, from the logical premise of modern mainstream economics are the logical results are often derived not consistent with reality, in which the key is, reveal the mechanism of action between things.
In fact, Friedman's mode, all the real logic of scientific explanation have a common structure, in explaining the nature and the nature of prophecy have enjoyed a perfect, logical view of symmetry, all using the same logic rules; only difference between the two is that explained after the event occurred, and predicted before the event occurs. For explanation, we need to explain the events from the start, to find at least a universal law and a set of initial conditions that logically should be included on the description of the event explained that, with a special reason to the interpretation of an event as simply the sum of the event to explain or subsumed into a set of general rules of law; and for predictions, we are from a general rules and a set of initial conditions starting from which we deduce that on an unknown event, that is, predictions are typically used to test whether the common law recognized in fact. However, despite the general rule applied by the Special prediction of events to test this rule, but used in the interpretation of the general laws that are not isolated cases were summarized by the generalized and lead out of the observation of events; Because of this, covering law model of scientific explanation has to be an attack from a variety of positions, and even the model of the most enterprising defenders Hempel himself in the years before this attack are also some retreat. Most critics agree that the interpretation of prophecy does not necessarily contain even interpretation does not necessarily contain predictions; because prophecy only to clarify the relevant factors required, however, to explain, it is much more complicated things.
Obviously, Friedman is not based on the assumption of reality and relevance of come to a rational argument that does not have the school do not meet the requirements of logical consistency; Simon to emphasize its lead to the necessary concessions; the approximate continuity, we have allowed this concession. Man on the definition of positive science is a tool doctrine, but simply not in the theory of scientific inquiry; but even so, Hausmann also pointed out that The results are important. Therefore Friedman's central thesis, namely, l hypothetical reality and irrelevant to the evaluation of scientific theories r, is untenable. because the economics of a number of construction is testable, Therefore, the standard tool for advocates will not refuse such an obvious falsification. Realism is l r, because they never
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